World Premiere of Rightist Mushrooms (2019) in Kulturpalast Dresden by AuditivVokal (Nov. 9, 2019)
Information
Kingyo Obsession (2017)
日本語：金魚オブセッション
for four voices or choir (SATB)
Commissioned by Soundstreams (Canada)
ca. 5 min.
Interviews, Talks, and Press
Interviews, Talks, and Press
Interviews, Talks, and Press
composer | sound artist
Shō: Composer's Guide
1. Introduction
The shō (笙) is a Japanese free reed mouth organ, consisting of seventeen bamboo pipes of varying lengths neatly secured by an outer metal ring, as illustrated in Figure 1. Its distinctive shape resembles that of a Ho-Oh, or Chinese phoenix, with folded wings, and its sound is often described as reminiscent of the legendary bird's cry. With a history spanning over a millennium, the shō holds a significant place as one of the three wind instruments in Japan's Gagaku orchestra.
In the Gagaku ensemble, performers utilize the shō by both inhaling and exhaling through the mouthpiece. The primary role of this instrument is to provide chord accompaniments to the melodies. Each pipe is detachable from the windchest and, when equipped with a reed, produces a specific pitch. The metal reed is coated with grated malachite, giving it a distinctive blue-green color. A small weight, composed of a mixture of wax and lead, is placed on the reed for tuning purposes. The reed is affixed to the pipe using a specialized wax made from a blend of beeswax and pine-tree gum.
The pipes exhibit three distinct openings: the finger hole, the byōjō (屏上; a rectangular window on each pipe), and the end-hole. By closing the finger hole with a finger and either inhaling or exhaling into the wind chest, a specific pitch is produced. Closing one finger hole generates a single pitch, while closing multiple finger holes results in a chord. Inhaling or exhaling into the instrument without closing any finger holes produces no pitch. A common misconception is that the height of the pipe corresponds to the pitch it produces. However, this is inaccurate, as it is the position of the byōjō that determines the pitch, preserving the structural symmetry and aesthetic appeal of the shō.
Figure 1. Shō. Photo by Author
Composers need to be aware of whether they are writing for a Gagaku instrument or an instrument tuned for contemporary music. Instruments used in Gagaku orchestras are typically tuned to A=430Hz/Gyō (行)=430Hz, which is slightly lower than the standard European orchestral tuning. Notably, the pipes of mō (毛) and ya (也) in Gagaku instruments do not feature reeds. In contrast, instruments tuned for contemporary music are usually set at A=440Hz or A=442Hz to ensure compatibility with other European instruments. Moreover, in most cases, all 17 pipes are equipped with reeds.
Many shō performers who are accustomed to playing new music with their instruments often own two shōs - one tuned to A=430Hz for Gagaku and another tuned to A=440/442Hz for contemporary music. Nevertheless, it is advisable to consult with the performer before commencing the composition process regarding (1) the tuning of the instrument and (2) whether all pipes are equipped with reeds. It's worth noting that shō tuned at A=430Hz can also be used in the context of contemporary music, and the slight tuning variation, when played alongside the A=442Hz tuned instrument, can create a captivating sonic experience for the audience. However, it is not feasible to retune a shō within a piece as it would be time-consuming.
Composers should also consider that the shō must be properly warmed both before and after a performance and, at times, during extended performances, shown in Figure 2. This is necessary because our breath contains moisture, and shō reeds are unable to produce sound when they are moist. The time required to fully warm the shō depends on the instrument's condition and the room's temperature, but it typically takes approximately 12 to 15 minutes. Generally, performers can play for about 15 minutes before needing to reheat the instrument. In most cases, shō performers have portable electric heaters, so composers and concert organizers usually do not need to provide heating devices for the shō. However, electrical outlets will be required to power these electric heaters.
Figure 2. Warming the shō.
2. Fingering and Pitch
Each pipe on the shō is designated to produce a specific pitch. In the traditional fingering chart shown in Figure 3, it's apparent that several pipes share the same fingering. Pipes like Sen (千), Jū (十), and Ku (工) are intended to be played with R1. This means that if you consecutively perform two or three notes of Sen, Jū, and Ku with the standard fingering listed below, the phrase will not be played legato because it requires releasing the finger hole of one pipe to move to another. When a seamless transition between these notes is desired, it's best not to use the standard fingering. Instead, consider substituting L1 for Ku and overlapping Ku and Jū, while Jū is played with the standard R1 fingering. While conventional fingering is recommended whenever possible, there's room for substituting the standard fingering with specific alternatives on a case-by-case basis.
Figure 3. Conventional fingering for pipes Sen, Jū, and Ku
The finger holes of pipes Otsu, Ge, and Hi are located inside the instrument, as indicated by the red dots on the relevant pipes in Figure 4. Performers use R2 to cover this opening on the right side between pipes Hi and Sen. All three finger holes are played with R2, and there's limited space for this finger to maneuver within this area. Consequently, when performing a chord, theoretically, it's impossible to play Otsu, Ge, or Hi together, and playing these notes consecutively does not allow for a legato phrase.
Figure 4. Conventional fingering for pipes Otsu, Ge, and Hi
In situations where the composer wishes to use these notes simultaneously in a chord, it is possible to use R2 on Otsu or Ge and R1 on Hi by flexibly intertwining R2 and R1 into an X-shape. In this case, R2 is positioned on top of R1, as demonstrated in Figure 5. Performers will need approximately two to three seconds to prepare for this special fingering, and it is also advisable not to have complex passages on the left hand simultaneously.
Figure 5. Special fingering for Otsu/Ge and Hi
Figure 6 displays a chord used in Crazy Embai (2021) for a shō trio. According to conventional fingerings, Ge and Hi are played by R2, and Bi and Ya are played by L1. However, the score instructs performers to play Ge and Bi with the conventional fingerings, use L2 for Ya, and R1 for Hi by intertwining R2 and R1 into an X-shape.
Figure 6. A chord with special fingering instructions from Crazy Embai (2021)
Bi, Ichi, Hachi, Ya, and Gon are all played by L1, as shown in Figure 7. When necessary, Bi can be substituted with R1, and in many cases, Gon, Ya, and Hachi can be substituted with L2, with the possibility of using L3 as well.
Figure 7. Conventional fingering for pipes Bi, Ichi, Hachi, Ya, and Gon
The finger holes for pipes Shichi and Gyō are typically located higher than the rest of the finger holes, as seen in Figure 8. The standard fingering for Shichi is L2, and the standard fingering for Gyō is L3. When alternative fingering is required for these two pipes, performers often play either of these pitches with L4.
Figure 8. Conventional fingering for pipes Shichi and Gyō and the location of its finger holes
Jō, Bō, Kotsu, and Mō, shown in Figure 9, are played with L4. Although the chart lists R4 as the standard fingering for Mō, technically, all four pipes can be played with R4.
Figure 9. Conventional fingering for pipes Jō, Bō, Kotsu, and Mō
Due to the shō's complex fingering system, there are inherent limitations on mobility when composing fast passages of individual notes. Unlike some variations of the Chinese sheng, the shō lacks keys over the finger holes to open and close them. Additionally, the finger holes on the shō are quite small, making it challenging to execute fast and rhythmical passages of individual notes. Nevertheless, composers can be creative and flexible when it comes to fingering.
As an illustration, Figure 10 displays an excerpt from "La Matrice des Vents" by Paul Mefano. This passage poses challenges for performers because there are no indications of special fingerings in the score. However, given that Kotsu and Bō are intended to be played by L4 in the standard fingerings, it becomes evident that this passage is unplayable without alternative fingerings. In this scenario, the best solution would be to play Kotsu with the standard L4, substitute Bō with L3, and play Bi with R1 (instead of L1) to provide sufficient reach to play Ya with the standard L1.
Figure 10. A passage with special fingering needs from La Matrice des Vents (1992)
In conclusion, composers are encouraged to utilize conventional fingerings whenever possible. However, when exceptions arise, such as when two pipes need to be played with the same finger, shō players can be flexible with fingerings. When in doubt, it's advisable for the composer to consult with the shō performer to determine the feasibility of specific fingerings.
3. Aitake
As a chord instrument, the shō predominantly produces eleven types of aitake (合竹) or tone clusters in Gagaku. Each chord consists of five to six notes in the tone clusters, often characterized by dissonance when observed from the perspective of conventional Western music harmony. Each chord is named after the pipe that produces its fundamental tone, as depicted in Figure 11. These aitake chords serve as a continuous textural soundscape for the melody through the repetitive use of specific breathing techniques. It's important to note that they do not function as traditional harmonizations of the melody. These aitake chords are frequently incorporated into contemporary compositions by modern composers.
Figure 11. Transcription of the eleven types of aitake used in Gagaku
4. Teutsuri
Gagaku music exhibits a flowing, mist-like quality, and this continuous flow is facilitated by an essential technique known as "teutsuri" (手移り). In Gagaku, achieving a seamless transition between consecutive "aitake" chords can be challenging without the use of teutsuri. To address this, performers gradually shift their fingers from one chord to another, ensuring a smooth progression. While teutsuri is a concept rooted in Gagaku music, contemporary composers have also adapted this technique in their new compositions. Below is a list of teutsuri instructions for transitioning from one aitake to another in the context of Gagaku.
Kotsu (乞)
→ Ichi (一)
Release Kotsu (乞) and Hachi (八), and close Bō (凢) and Ichi (一)
→ Ku (工)
Release Kotsu (乞), Hachi (八), and Sen (千), and close Bō (凢), Bi (美), and Ku (工)
→ Bō (凢)
Release Kotsu (乞) and close Bō (凢)
→ Otsu (乙)
Release Kotsu (乞) and close Jō (上)
→ Ge (下)
Release Kotsu (乞) and Hachi (八), and close Jō (上) and Bi (美) while simultaneously sliding finger from Otsu (乙) to Ge (下)
→ Jū (十)
Release Kotsu (乞) and Sen (千), and close Jō (上) and Jū (十) while simultaneously sliding finger from Otsu (乙) to Ge (下)
→ Bi (美)
Release Kotsu (乞) and Hachi (八), and close Jō (上) and Bi (美) while simultaneously moving finger from Otsu (乙) to Hi (比)
→ Gyō (行)
Release Kotsu (乞) and close Jō (上) while simultaneously releasing Otsu (乙)
→ Hi (比)
Release Kotsu (乞) and close Jō (上) while simultaneously moving finger from Otsu (乙) to Hi (比)
Ichi (一)
→ Kotsu (乞)
Release Bō (凢), close Kotsu (乞) while simultaneously releasing Ichi (一), and upon Kigae, close Hachi (八)
→ Ku (工)
Release Ichi (一) and Sen (千), and close Bi (美) and Ku (工)
→ Bō (凢)
Release Ichi (一) and close Hachi (八)
→ Otsu (乙)
Release Bō (凢) and Ichi (一), and close Jō (上) and Hachi (八)
→ Ge (下)
Release Bō (凢) and Ichi (一), and close Jō (上) and Bi (美) while simultaneously sliding finger from Otsu (乙) to Ge (下)
→ Jū (十)
Release Bō (凢), Ichi (一), and Sen (千), and close Jō (上), Hachi (八), and Jū (十) while simultaneously sliding finger from Otsu (乙) to Ge (下)
→ Bi (美)
Release Bō (凢) and Ichi (一), and close Jō (上) and Bi (美) while simultaneously moving finger from Otsu (乙) to Hi (比)
→ Gyō (行)
Release Bō (凢) and Ichi (一), and close Jō (上) and Hachi (八) while simultaneously releasing Otsu (乙)
→ Hi (比)
Release Bō (凢) and Ichi (一), and close Jō (上) and Hachi (八) while simultaneously moving finger from Otsu (乙) to Hi (比)
Ku (工)
→ Kotsu (乞)
Release Bō (凢) and Bi (美), close Kotsu (乞) and Hachi (八) while simultaneously releasing Ku (工), and upon Kigae, close Sen (千)
→ Ichi (一)
Release Bi (美), close Ichi (一) while simultaneously releasing Ku (工), and upon Kigae, close Sen (千)
→ Bō (凢)
Release Bi (美), close Hachi (八) while simultaneously releasing Ku (工), and upon Kigae, close Sen (千)
→ Otsu (乙)
Release Bō (凢) and Bi (美), close Jō (上) and Hachi (八) while simultaneously releasing Ku (工), and upon Kigae, close Sen (千)
→ Ge (下)
Release Bō (凢), close Jō (上) while simultaneously sliding finger from Otsu (乙) to Ge (下), release Ku (工), and upon Kigae, close Sen (千)
→ Hi (比)
Release Bō (凢) and Bi (美), close Jō (上) and Hachi (八) while simultaneously moving finger from Otsu (乙) to Hi (比), release Ku (工) and upon Kigae, close Sen (千)
Bō (凢)
→ Kotsu (乞)
Release Bō (凢) and close Kotsu (乞)
→ Ichi (一)
Release Hachi (八) and close Ichi (一)
→ Ku (工)
Release Hachi (八) and Sen (千), and close Bi (美), and Ku (工)
→ Otsu (乙)
Release Bō (凢) and close Jō (上)
→ Ge (下)
Release Bō (凢) and Hachi (八), and close Jō (上) and Bi (美) while simultaneously sliding finger from Otsu (乙) to Ge (下)
→ Jū (十)
Release Bō (凢) and Sen (千), and close Jō (上) and Jū (十) while simultaneously sliding finger from Otsu (乙) to Ge (下)
→ Bi (美)
Release Bō (凢) and Hachi (八), and close Jō (上) and Bi (美) while simultaneously moving finger from Otsu (乙) to Hi (比)
→ Hi (比)
Release Bō (凢) and close Jō (上) while simultaneously moving finger from Otsu (乙) to Hi (比)
Otsu (乙)
→ Kotsu (乞)
Release Jō (上) and close Kotsu (乞)
→ Ichi (一)
Release Jō (上) and Hachi (八), and close Bō (凢) and Ichi (一)
→ Ku (工)
Release Jō (上), Hachi (八) and Sen (千), and close Bō (凢), Bi (美), and Ku (工)
→ Bō (凢)
Release Jō (上) and close Bō (凢)
→ Ge (下)
Release Hachi (八) and close Bi (美) while simultaneously sliding finger from Otsu (乙) to Ge (下)
→ Jū (十)
Release Sen (千) and close Jū (十) while simultaneously sliding finger from Otsu (乙) to Ge (下)
→ Bi (美)
Release Hachi (八) and close Bi (美) while simultaneously moving finger from Otsu (乙) to Hi (比)
→ Gyō (行)
Release Otsu (乙)
→ Hi (比)
Move finger from Otsu (乙) to Hi (比)
Ge (下)
→ Kotsu (乞)
Release Jō (上) and Ge (下), close Kotsu (乞) and Otsu (乙) while simultaneously releasing Bi (美), and upon Kigae, close Hachi (八)
→ Ichi (一)
Release Jō (上), Bi (美), and Ge (下), and close Bō (凢), Ichi (一), and Otsu (乙)
→ Ku (工)
Release Jō (上), Sen (千), and Ge (下), and close Bō (凢), Ku (工), and Otsu (乙)
→ Bō (凢)
Release Jō (上) and Ge (下), close Bō (凢) and Otsu (乙) while simultaneously releasing Bi (美), and upon Kigae, close Hachi (八)
→ Otsu (乙)
Release Ge (下), close Otsu (乙) while simultaneously releasing Bi (美), and upon Kigae, close Hachi (八)
→ Jū (十)
Release Sen (千), close Jū (十) while simultaneously releasing Bi (美), and upon Kigae, close Hachi (八)
→ Bi (美)
Move finger from Ge (下) to Hi (比)
→ Gyō (行)
Release Bi (美) and close Hachi (八) while simultaneously releasing Ge (下)
→ Hi (比)
Release Bi (美) and close Hachi (八) while simultaneously moving finger from Ge (下) to Hi (比)
Jū (十)
→ Kotsu (乞)
Release Jō (上) and Ge (下), close Kotsu (乞) and Otsu (乙) while simultaneously releasing Jū (十), and upon Kigae, close Sen (千)
→ Ichi (一)
Release Jō (上), Hachi (八), and Ge (下), close Bō (凢), Ichi (一), and Otsu (乙) while simultaneously releasing Jū (十), and upon Kigae, close Sen (千)
→ Bō (凢)
Release Jō (上) and Ge (下), close Bō (凢) and Otsu (乙) while simultaneously releasing Jū (十), and upon Kigae, close Sen (千)
→ Otsu (乙)
Release Ge (下), close Otsu (乙) while simultaneously releasing Jū (十), and upon Kigae, close Sen (千)
→ Ge (下)
Release Hachi (八) and close Bi (美) while simultaneously sliding finger from Jū (十) to Sen (千)
→ Hi (比)
Move finger from Ge (下) to Hi (比) while simultaneously sliding finger from Jū (十) to Sen (千)
Bi (美)
→ Kotsu (乞)
Release Jō (上), close Kotsu (乞) while simultaneously moving finger from Hi (比) to Otsu (乙) and releasing Bi (美), and upon Kigae, close Hachi (八)
→ Ichi (一)
Release Jō (上) and Bi (美), close Bō (凢) and Ichi (一) while simultaneously moving finger from Hi (比) to Otsu (乙)
→ Bō (凢)
Release Jō (上), close Bō (凢) while simultaneously moving finger from Hi (比) to Otsu (乙) and releasing Bi (美), and upon Kigae, close Hachi (八)
→ Otsu (乙)
Release Hi (比), close Otsu (乙) while simultaneously releasing Bi (美), and upon Kigae, close Hachi (八)
→ Ge (下)
Release Hi (比) and close Ge (下)
→ Jū (十)
Release Sen (千), close Jū (十) while simultaneously moving finger from Hi (比) to Ge (下) and releasing Bi (美), and upon Kigae, close Hachi (八)
→ Gyō (行)
Release Bi (美) and close Hachi (八) while simultaneously releasing Hi (比)
Gyō (行)
→ Ichi (一)
Release Jō (上) and Hachi (八), and close Bō (凢), Ichi (一), and Otsu (乙)
→ Bō (凢)
Release Jō (上) and close Bō (凢) and Otsu (乙)
→ Otsu (乙)
Close Otsu (乙)
→ Ge (下)
Release Hachi (八) and close Bi (美) and Ge (下)
→ Bi (美)
Release Hachi (八) and close Bi (美) and Hi (比)
Hi (比)
→ Kotsu (乞)
Release Jō (上) and close Kotsu (乞) while simultaneously moving finger from Hi (比) to Otsu (乙)
→ Ichi (一)
Release Jō (上) and Hachi (八), and close Bō (凢) and Ichi (一) while simultaneously moving finger from Hi (比) to Otsu (乙)
→ Bō (凢)
Release Jō (上) and close Bō (凢) while simultaneously moving finger from Hi (比) to Otsu (乙)
→ Otsu (乙)
Release Hi (比) and close Otsu (乙)
→ Ge (下)
Release Hachi (八) and close Bi (美) while simultaneously moving finger from Hi (比) to Ge (下)
→ Jū (十)
Release Sen (千) and close Jū (十) while simultaneously moving finger from Hi (比) to Ge (下)
Sō-jō-no-Jū (双調の十)
→ Kotsu (乞)
Release Jō (上), close Kotsu (乞) and Otsu (乙) while simultaneously releasing Jū (十), and upon Kigae, close Sen (千)
→ Ichi (一)
Release Jō (上) and Hachi (八), close Bō (凢), Ichi (一), and Otsu (乙) while simultaneously releasing Jū (十), and upon Kigae, close Sen (千)
→ Bō (凢)
Release Jō (上), close Bō (凢) and Otsu (乙) while simultaneously releasing Jū (十), and upon Kigae, close Sen (千)
→ Otsu (乙)
Close Otsu (乙) while simultaneously releasing Jū (十), and upon Kigae, close Sen (千)
→ Ge (下)
Release Hachi (八), close Bi (美) and Ge (下) while simultaneously shifting finger from Jū (十) to Sen (千)
→ Jū (十)
Close Ge (下)
→ Hi (比)
Release Jū (十) and close Sen (千) and Hi (比)
Teutsuri to Sō-jō-no-Jū (双調の十)
Kotsu (乞) → Sō-jō-no-Jū (双調の十)
Release Kotsu (乞) and Sen (千), and close Jō (上) and Jū (十) while simultaneously releasing Otsu (乙)
Ichi (一) → Sō-jō-no-Jū (双調の十)
Release Bō (凢), Ichi (一), and Sen (千), and close Jō (上), Hachi (八), and Jū (十) while simultaneously releasing Otsu (乙)
Bō (凢) → Sō-jō-no-Jū (双調の十)
Release Bō (凢) and Sen (千), and close Jō (上) and Jū (十) while simultaneously releasing Otsu (乙)
Otsu (乙) → Sō-jō-no-Jū (双調の十)
Release Sen (千) and close Jū (十) while simultaneously releasing Otsu (乙)
Ge (下) → Sō-jō-no-Jū (双調の十)
Release Sen (千), close Jū (十) while simultaneously releasing Bi (美) and Ge (下), and upon Kigae, close Hachi (八)
Jū (十) → Sō-jō-no-Jū (双調の十)
Release Ge (下)
Hi (比) → Sō-jō-no-Jū (双調の十)
Release Sen (千) and close Jū (十) while simultaneously releasing Hi (比)
There are numbers of alternative teutsuri methods, so the instructions shown on the list above may differ from the teutsuri practice performed in one Gagaku society to another.
5. Breathing
Performers are able to produce the same pitch on the same pipe when we inhale and exhale, and they are capable of continuously playing a note or a chord by switching back and forth between inhale and exhale, or exhale and inhale. However, there is a very small break in sound when we switch from inhale to exhale, or exhale to inhale. This moment when performers change their breaths is called kigae (気替え). In Gagaku music, when the cycle of beats are in four counts, kigae is performed in a very subtle way on the first beat. The breath on the first and the second beat is relatively calm, however, slowly and gradually swells in tension and volume towards the third beat, and on the fourth beat, weaken the tension. Here, we will perform the teutsuri on this fourth beat, and on the first beat, perform the kigae.
This breathing style of swelling and subsiding in tension and volume within a breathing cycle is very much connected with the aesthetics of Gagaku. However, shō performers may or may not use this breathing style when playing contemporary music. If composers would like to incorporate this breathing style in their pieces, it is recommended to make a note in the score, such as “Gagaku-style breathing”. With one breath, one can sustain a note or chord for about 15 to 20 seconds in piano dynamics, and perhaps about 10 to 15 seconds in forte or fortissimo. Circular breathing is not common for shō performers.
5. Breathing
Shō performers have the unique capability to produce the same pitch on a given pipe both when inhaling and exhaling. They can create a continuous flow of notes or chords by seamlessly switching between inhaling and exhaling, or exhaling and inhaling. However, there is a very brief pause in sound when transitioning from inhale to exhale or vice versa. This moment when performers shift their breath is referred to as "kigae" (気替え). In Gagaku music, particularly when the musical cycle is based on four counts, kigae is executed subtly on the first beat. The breathing on the first and second beats is relatively calm, gradually building in tension and volume towards the third beat, and then gradually releasing tension on the fourth beat. It is on this fourth beat that teutsuri is performed, while kigae occurs on the first beat.
This breathing pattern, characterized by the ebb and flow of tension and volume within a single breath cycle, is intricately linked with the aesthetics of Gagaku. In contemporary music, shō performers may or may not adhere to this specific breathing style. If composers wish to incorporate this style into their compositions, it is advisable to include a notation in the score, such as "Gagaku-style breathing." When performed with a single breath, a note or chord can be sustained for approximately 15 to 20 seconds at a piano dynamic level, and possibly around 10 to 15 seconds at forte or fortissimo. Circular breathing is not a common technique among shō performers.
6. Notation
Traditional notation for Gagaku music serves as a memorandum that outlines key aspects of the music. As a result, performers cannot solely rely on the information from the score to play a Gagaku piece. Furthermore, the notation varies from one instrument to another. Ryūteki's notation employs two systems: a set of larger katakana characters representing a solfege system and a set of smaller characters indicating finger positions on the instrument. Hichiriki uses a similar solfege-based notation but differs in fingering notations. While the fingering system is included in the score, traditional scores do not provide adequate information for learning the music, as multiple pitches can be played with the notated fingering.
Shō scores are notated with kanji characters, with each character representing a chord. These scores are read vertically from right to left. Similarly, like the scores of ryūteki and hichiriki, traditional shō scores lack indications of phrasing, dynamics, and other expressive notations commonly found in Western music scores. This notation method is referred to as "Kōshakufu" (工尺譜). An example of a shō score for "Etenraku" in Hyō-Jō is depicted in Figure 12.
Figure 12. Score excerpt of Etenraku in Hyō-Jō, shō part score. Transcribed by author
① "Etenraku"
The big three kanji characters here read "Etenraku", and is the title for this piece.
② "Shōkyoku"
The literal translation of "Shōkyoku" is “small piece”. In Gagaku, the pieces are classified between big, medium, and small. This, however, does not have any correlation with the length of the piece. To describe very simply, the pieces classified as “big piece” has a solemn and dignified feel in the music, the “medium piece” less so, and the “small piece” as the music performed most lightly and airily, compared among these three classifications.
③ "Haya-yo-hyōshi"
In order to understand "Haya-yo-hyōshi", we must first separate and define each word. First, we have “Haya”, which is an equivalent of 4/4 in the Western music time signature. However, this is not to be understood in the same metronomic 4/4 that Western time signatures use. Next, we look at “Yo-hyōshi” - this refers to a rhythmic cycle from one strike of taiko to the next. It is an indication of how many kohyōshi (kobyōshi) are within the rhythmic cycle. In this case, Yo is four, so there are four kohyōshi within the cycle. In other Gagaku repertoires, we are able to see indications like "Haya-Ya-Hyoshi", where Ya is eight, so in that case, there are eight kohyoshi within the cycle.
④ "Hyōshi-hachi"
The total number of hyōshi, the number of strikes on taiko, is eight. Jūto is to be excluded from the count. Jūto is only played when repeated twice, so the number of hyōshi, on the first time through is eight. We do not include the count of the second-time through.
⑤ "Sueni-hyōshi-kuwae"
A rhythm indication for the percussions to add two hyōshi. Details are not notated in the shō score above.
⑥ "Kōdo-jūni"
Kōdo is defined as the “second repeat” when repeating all or part of the piece two or more times. Jūni means twelve. In “Etenraku”, the main lines [AB] is played with the jūto. Jūto [CC = 2 x 2] and the repeated main lines (AABB = 2 x 2 + 2 x 2) makes the total number of hyōshi to 12.
⑦ Aitake
Each character here represents an aitake chord on this score. While in other pieces there are exceptions and one character may indicate an individual note, the instruction is notated on the score, and for Etenraku, this is not the case. Further down on the same line, two aitake - Jū and Ge - is placed within the usual length of one aitake. Similarly on the third line, Ichi and Kotsu, Kotsu and Ichi, as well as Ichi and Ku are placed within the usual length of one aitake.
⑧ "Nihen/Nikaeshi"
Repeat the phrase again from the koreyori, or from the beginning of the piece or immediately after the previous nihen, where there is no koreyori.
⑨ "Jūto"
Juto is a short phrase performed as a transition only when the piece is repeated. Insert this phrase and return to the beginning of the piece.
Today, when composing new pieces for Gagaku instruments, it is very common to see composers notating the score in Western five-line notation. There are countless benefits to this, as composers can articulately notate the pitch, rhythm, and dynamics, present expressive and characteristic musicality, and control the flow of time. The possibility of having their music read and studied by a larger pool of musicians, scholars, and audience is also an attractive fact for composers. In some cases, composers write in the note name, such as Bō and Shichi, above the five-line notation system. While writing the note names above the staff is not necessary, we must know that not all shō performers are comfortable reading the five-line notation system, as this is not the scoring system used in the practice of Gagaku music.
For individual notes, each pitch name can be written and a horizontal line to the right may visually display the length of note, as well as the overlap with other notes. When notating a chord, a vertical bracket for non-conventional chords, that is chords other than aitake, may be used, as such in Mimi Spelunking (2019) in Figure 13. It is helpful for performers to discern whether the cluster is to be played as a chord or if the notes are slightly decoupled with each other.
Figure 13. Score excerpt of Mimi Spelunking (2019) by Chatori Shimizu
When notating aitake chords, one may use a horizontal bracket. Below is an excerpt of Crazy Embai (2021) where several non-conventional chords of two notes in each cluster lead to the Ku aitake, seen in Figure 14. The usage of a horizontal brackets for an aitake chord is useful for performers to quickly discern the difference between non-conventional chords and an aitake, or an individual note and an aitake.
While using the vertical and horizontal brackets may be useful, it is also important to indicate this in the performance notes, as there is no notation technique in contemporary music that has been agreed upon by all sho performers.
Figure 14. Score excerpt of Crazy Embai (2021) by Chatori Shimizu
7. Time Identity
Shō in Gagaku music embraces a very unique time identity. Haya in Haya-yo-hyōshi can be understood as an equivalent of 4/4 in the Western music time signature. However, this should not be understood in the metronomic sense, as the beat in Gagaku fluctuates. In Etenraku, performers execute the teutsuri and kigae during the time between the 4th beat and on the 1st beat, making the 4th beat non-metric and "stretched". This unique time identity is not notated on the Gagaku score, and is also extremely difficult or nearly impossible to transcribe in the Western five-line notation system.
In an interview I have conducted regarding the topic of notation of Gagaku instruments in today’s compositions, Hitomi Nakamura - a prominent hichiriki performer based in Tokyo - says she has never encountered a Western notation-based score for Gagaku instruments that gives attention to the unique time identity of Gagaku music. “I have never seen a Western style score that successfully notates the naturally changing length of the beats, as seen in Gagaku music.” Nakamura continues, “I have seen scores with repetitive markings of accelerando and ritardando in short spans, but I did not feel as though the piece consciously revived the time identity of Gagaku. I have, however, received comments verbally from composers, that they would prefer the beats to shrink and expand as it does in Gagaku. Even if we performers are not advised to do so, I believe that there are many instances where we unconsciously expand the beat, as we are used to do in Gagaku.”
Today, when composing new pieces for Gagaku instruments, it is very common for composers notating the score in the Western five-line notation system, as we have seen in the examples above. Now a question arises here – when composing for shō, is it important to - to an extent - preserve the time identity of Gagaku in our compositions? A faction of modern and contemporary Western art music composers openly state that they are "destroying and liberating music from the conservative theoretical structures". For those composers, will that concept be limited to European instruments, or will it include shō? There is no "correct answer" for this question, and it is up to every composer to decide whether to preserve and to push forward the unique time identity of Gagaku onto the new composition for shō, or to create something completely new on a white canvas.
For those who are interested in preserving the Gagaku time identity, or to compose on the foundations of the Gagaku time identity, below are three examples of scores where art music composers use a time identity flexible enough to give space for shō performers to express Gagaku breathing style, and not bind them with a metronome-based time.
Composer and ethnomusicologist Kikuko Massumoto (also spelled Kikuko Masumoto) does not use a time signature in her work TSUKI for shō and shakuhachi, shown in Figure 15. In the beginning of the piece, a tempo marking of a quarter note (♩) = 60 - equivalent to a beat per second - is only applied on the shakuhachi. This allows the shō to begin the piece freed from time constraints.
Figure 15. Score excerpt of TSUKI (1983) by Kikuko Massumoto
Beginning from the end of line 1 and continuing on to line 2, shown in Figure 16, numbers are written on top of the shō staff, signifying the beats of the shakuhachi, which doesn’t control the time flow, but only gently allowing the shō player to be aware of their location on score. The approximate lengths of shō chords are visually represented by a horizontal line, minimizing the shō performer’s efforts to count the beats in a metronomic sense. The horizontal line also allows both performers to mutually listen to each other’s parts, without the need of a strict sense of beats.
Figure 16. Score excerpt of TSUKI (1983) by Kikuko Massumoto
On the other hand, composer Maki Ishii separates his music into sections in his work Musik für Shō und Violoncello (1988), shown in Figure 17. Each section is notated with a time span in seconds, and the instrumentalists play the notes within the instructed time, unchallenged by the metrically binding time signature. This work also offers performers no tempo indication in bpm and is segmented in fourteen sections, each notated with a number, as well as an approximate performance time in seconds. Here we can see the beginnings of Section 1 and Section 2, both to be played in about 50 seconds.
The approximate length of each note is exhibited by a horizontal line, which extends from the note, and is to be interpreted by the performer. Whenever timing relationships between the shō and cello are of importance, Ishii connects the notes of the two instruments with a vertical dotted line, which you can see in the beginning of Section 2.
Without bars and measures, both instrumentalists are required to listen to each other’s musical parts, in order to collectively perform the music. While this is true to most musical cultures around the world, it can be speculated that Ishii had the Gagaku orchestra technique in his mind, where performers listen to each other and play without a conductor. By placing vertical dotted lines in his scores, connecting both staves’ musical note or the horizontal line extension extending from the note, it facilitates the speed of the music, similarly to the function of the taiko in Gagaku music.
Figure 17. Score excerpt of Musik für Shō und Violoncello (1988) by Maki Ishii
The third example, we bring is John Cage’s approach to accommodating shō’s unique time identity, which I think can be another helpful guide for composers. In his 1991 work Two4, Cage notates flexible time frames for the shō performer to perform a passage within Figure 18. The time frames are written on top of the staves, and the player can choose their tempo if it does not protrude the notated time.
Just a note, this piece is one of Cage’s “Number Pieces”, therefore, it is not the case that Cage has specifically adjusted the performance time notation in order to conform to the time identity of shō. However, it does give us a clue to how we can free the notation from binding the time flow with a metronomic time identity.
Figure 18. Score excerpt of Two4 (1991) by John Cage
To wrap up, TSUKI, Musik für Shō und Violoncello, and Two4 are just three of the many works composed for shō after the 1950s. However, these three works, consciously or unconsciously, display diverse methods of accommodating the time identity of shō into the context of contemporary music. Although these three works stem from extremely different composition processes, they successfully decontextualize the context of Gagaku without eradicating what some believe to make shō a shō, that is, keeping the volatile time flow of the heritage of the mouth organ. However, again, we as composers all have the freedom in the end to design and create what makes sense to each of us.
8. Performance Notes
Composers who are not accustomed to shō may not be familiar with what a shō performer already knows, and what should be noted and elaborated in the performance notes. The example below is the performance notes for Mimi Spelunking (2021), shown in Figure 19. For the “Instructions for Shō”, the tuning of the instrument is noted as A=440 Hz, and instructions to secure reeds on all 17-pipes, including Mō and Ya. A simple explanation on the instructions on tempo, rhythm, and time flow can also be seen.
Figure 19. Performance Notes from Mimi Spelunking (2019) by Chatori Shimizu
On the next page, symbols, such as a horizontal arrow, which means “continue note or chord until breath ends”, and the tickle trill (see "Extended Techniques" below), are elaborated in Figure 20.
Figure 20. Performance Notes from Mimi Spelunking (2019) by Chatori Shimizu
9. Setting the Stage
In some contemporary pieces, it is necessary to position the instrumentalists in a certain way. Shō performers can play the instrument while standing up, sitting on a chair or on the floor, or while walking in a slow pace. As the instrument needs to be warmed every 15 minutes or so, shō performers may request to place an electric heater besides them. In that case, it is important to know where the electrical outlets are, and whether the length of cables powering the electric heater is long enough to reach the plugs.
10. Extended Techniques
Throughout the history of Western music, instruments were modified and new performance techniques were created to fit new compositional ideas. Gagaku instruments such as shō, on the other hand, is thought to have relatively minute changes made in the performance methods during the course of history. However, that does not mean that there were no changes, and its performance methods has been amended in multiple instances, leading to changes in performance techniques. In this section, performance techniques not seen in Gagaku music are introduced.
10.1 Voice
In Gagaku, there are singing practices such as the shōga, however, this is extremely different in terms of artistic connotations connecting to the piece itself. Numerous composers of post-war shō music have incorporated voice in their music. Here, we have the example from Jean-Patrick Besingrand’s sans feuilles à disperser, where he notates voicing for the performer while playing Jō and Otsu, shown in Figure 21.
Composers may use this technique to create a new sonic layer contrary to that of shō. Although it’s possible to use this technique while inhaling and exhaling, voicing a specific pitch is possible only when exhaling. For this technique, the performer’s mouth is attached to the sho, so forming audible words while playing a note or a chord on the instrument is extremely difficult. When a composer wants spoken words from the performer which are understandable by the audience, it is recommended that the instrument is off the performer’s mouth.
Figure 21. Score excerpt of sans feuilles à disperser (2021) by Jean-Patrick Besingrand
10.2 Staccato
While a staccato might not seem special or unconventional, we are unable to find this technique in the traditional repertoires on this instrument. A staccato can be made on shō, both with a single note or a chord. While it’s possible to create a staccato by both inhaling and exhaling, the exhaling method is recommended when notating multiple sequences of staccatos in an extremely separated and superlative mood. A staccato can be notated with a conventional staccato dot on the note, or a staccattissimo signal, such as the one in the example in Spectral (for Kazuo Ohno) (2012), shown in Figure 22.
Figure 22. Score excerpt of Spectral (for Kazuo Ohno) (2012) by Daryl Jamieson
10.3 Glissando
An upward glissando of about half step to a full step is possible by slowly sliding the finger off the sound hole. A downward glissando is not possible. Due to the small size of the finger holes of shō, even skilled shō performers are unable to consistently produce a successful glissando effect, especially when rushed. This technique requires high concentration of the performer, therefore, it’s recommended for the composer to use glissando on one note at a time. Producing a glissando effect on all notes of a chord simultaneously is extremely difficult, and it is more feasible to shift the pitch on one note at a time, just as we can see in Ivan Solano’s Kotsu-Shichi (2018) in Figure 23.
Playing Otsu and Ge as glissando is more difficult than other notes, as there is not too much space inside the instrument to subtly shift R2. In conventional fingering, Hi is played with the side of R2, so playing a glissando on Hi on conventional fingering is discouraged due to fingering complexity. It is still possible to play a glissando on Hi by substituting R2 with R1, when possible.
When playing a glissando on shō, performers must increase air pressure into the embouchure, however, the sounding pitch will be produced in diminuendo or diminuendo al niente while the glissando takes place.
Figure 23. Score excerpt of Kotsu-Shichi (2018) by Ivan Solano
10.4 Trill
There are many ways to play a trill or a trill-like effect on shō. Composers are encouraged to notate a held note, while simultaneously playing short and repetitive notes above or below, which will sound like a trill . This can also be done with a chord as a held note, such as this excerpt of sans couleurs à souffler (2019) by Besingrand, seen in Figure 24. The tempo of the trill can range from very slow to extremely fast, and the dynamics from very quiet to very loud. However, keep in mind that depending on the tuning of the instrument, the higher note might sound weaker when played with a continuous chord of lower notes.
Figure 24. Score excerpt of sans couleurs à souffler (2019) by Jean-Patrick Besingrand
10.5 Trill-like Effects
In the next example, Julie Zhu explores the glissando effects to imitate the trill-like effects. A method very similar to the glissando, we are able to use one note and sway the pitch by carefully sliding the finger back and forth on the finger hole by creating a small opening between the pad of the finger and the hole. It is important to not slide the finger off the hole completely, as this will result in a wavering sound getting cut off. Due to the structure of the instrument, the pitch can only go higher from the original note, and not lower. However, take a look at measure 13 in the example in Figure 25, starting from Gon. Gon is C#, however, Zhu starts from the high D sound, which on the shō is supposed to be Jō. However, as stated earlier, the sound can only go up and now down with a glissando, so this means that the performer must place their finger on Gon, carefully create a very small opening between the finger pad and the finger hole, so that the starting pitch of Gon becomes a high D. Then, the performer must gradually close the finger hole completely so the pitch will slowly shift down to the original sound of Gon. This technique requires practice for the performer, and there is a relatively high chance that the sound will get cut off even with the most skilled performers.
Figure 25. Score excerpt of finefine (2021) by Julie Zhu
10.6 "Tickle" Trills
Lastly, here are two example of trilling between multiple notes - the “tickle” trill. Here, in this excerpt from Mimi Spelunking (2021), we can see a stable "tickle" trill with a sustained note on top of the "tickle" effects in Figure 26. However, a "tickle" effect without a sustained note or chord is also possible without difficulty. An easily noticeable notation for this is to enclose the notes in a box, which the performers can easily discern between a chord, which is in a vertical bracket or an aitake, which is in a horizontal bracket. The tempo of the trill can range from very slow to extremely fast, which will result in a randomized order of notes. Performers are able to execute this technique with volumes ranging from very quiet to very loud.
Figure 26. Score excerpt of Mimi Spelunking (2019) by Chatori Shimizu
10.7 Change of Timbre
As shō performers are unable to directly touch the reeds, they are not possible to change the timbre just by changing the quality of our breath. A timbral interruptions similar to the effects of a trill can be created by tapping the end-hole with finger pads. In Sifting, surface, silence (2021), Rachel C. Walker uses a line with circles above the staff, where a filled circle refers to a covered top-end hole, and an unfilled circle an open one in Figure 27. The pitch is slightly lowered than the original pitch when the top-end hole is closed. The effect will be more noticeable when tapped in fast and recurring motion, when using it as a trill-like effect. It is more difficult to use this techniques on shorter pipes, such as Gyō and Shichi, as they are in between taller pipes which limits the space for finger movements.
Figure 27. Score excerpt of Sifting, surface, silence (2021) by Rachel C. Walker
10.8 Flutter Tongue
Flutter tongue is possible on shō, however, we must note that not all performers are able to execute a flutter tongue. Unlike the Chinese sheng, the flutter tongue technique on shō is only possible while exhaling, and can be applied to both single notes as well as chords. This technique can be notated using the standard tremolo marking on a note, as shown in the example by Besingrand in Figure 28. When playing flutter tongue, it is possible to smoothly switch from one note to another, or from one chord to another. Because of increased usage of breath, performers are unable to sustain a note or a chord with flutter tongue effects to the same length as a note or a chord produced with normal exhalation. Due to the same reasons, the volume will be louder.
Figure 28. Score excerpt of Plus bleu que l'indigo (2017) by Jean-Patrick Besingrand
10.9 Double Tonguing
Double tonguing can be played while both exhaling and inhaling, but performers can assert more control over intensity, rhythm, and tempo while exhaling. As shown in Akane (2019) by Jean-Louis Agobet, double tonguing can be used on both single notes and chords, and the performer is able to switch from one note to another, or from one chord to another, shown in Figure 29. Akane is an example of how we use double tonguing to kind of create a glissando-like effect of chords, something that shō is unable to execute when played conventionally. By double tonguing through several changing chords, it gives an impression to the audience that the chord is gradually morphing in terms of pitch materials. Another way to notate double tonguing, is by using the onomatopoeia to notate this technique, describing it as “TKTKTK”. The frequency or the speed of double tonguing can also be controlled, and can be notated with differing distances between “T” and “K”.
Figure 29. Score excerpt of Akane (2019) by Jean-Louis Agobet
10.11 Closing Finger Hole with Adhesives
In conventional fingering, the pipes Otsu, Bō, and Hi are all played by R2, therefore, performers cannot play these notes simultaneously. However, there is actually a method where playing these notes together simultaneously is possible. When performers are unable to play a pitch or a chord due to fingering issues, it is possible to apply tape, clay, or other adhesive materials on finger holes and close it, which gives the same effect as closing the finger hole with pad of finger. By using this method, composers will be able to design chords not playable by using both conventional and alternative fingerings. This method is also useful when composers want a note or chord to continue during a timeframe of their piece, as shown in an excerpt from Breath (2021) by Thomas Metcalf, shown in Figure 30.
In order to put tape, clay, or other adhesives on the designated finger hole, it will take the performer at least five seconds, and to remove them, at least three seconds. The action should be written down on the score in words, just like in the example, and the continuous pitch should be notated on the score in order to avoid confusion. In order to prevent damage to the instrument, reusable, pressure sensitive adhesives are recommended for usage. It is important to always consult the performer first for their preference of adhesives to be applied on their instrument.
Figure 30. Score excerpt of Breath (2021) by Thomas Metcalf
10.12 Preparation
In contemporary music, we can see many prepared instruments, such as prepared piano or a prepared guitar, used to change the timbre of the instrument. It is, however, extremely rare to find a prepared shō. Walker inserts foam earplugs into the end-hole of shō prior to the performance in her piece Sifting, surface, silence (2021), shown in Figure 31. Because the timbre of shō very slightly differs from instrument to instrument, the sound from the preparation is barely noticeable when foam earplugs are prepared from the beginning until the end of a piece, as the listeners might think the prepared sound was the unique original sound of that shō. However, one can definitely notice the difference in timbre, when the preparation is removed while playing a continuous note.
Figure 31. Score excerpt of Sifting, surface, silence (2021) by Rachel C. Walker
It will take at least five seconds to insert one foam earplug into an end-hole, and at least four seconds to remove it, shown in Figure 32. Other materials may be inserted into the end-hole, however, one must be cautious not to damage the instrument. Similarly with other unconventional techniques, it is recommended to consult the performer first before composing.
Figure 32. Removing foam earplug from end-hole.
10.13 Air Sounds
While breathing into the wind chest without closing any finger holes may produce airy sounds, it may not be as audible as composers want them to be. Usually, performers create a small opening between the wind chest and their mouths, and let their breath escape onto the side of the instrument. This way, we are able to control the timbre of the breath as well.
10.14 Güiro Effects
Hitting or scraping the shō will create interesting percussive sounds - when scraping the bamboo pipes, it will sound like the percussion güiro, seen in Figure 33. However, if a composer just wants the sound and does not have any artistic significance on the act of scraping the shō, it is suggested that composers use a real güiro, as shō is a very sensitive instrument and performers may at times worry about having scratch marks on the bamboo.
Figure 33. Scraping shō with metal spoon.
10.15 Shō as Individual Pipes
Playing shō as individual pipes will put extensive pressure on the performer in many ways, therefore, composers must consult with the performer first before deciding to use this technique. Shō is made of seventeen bamboo pipes resting on the wind chest, and by removing the silver ring, we can slowly and carefully remove each pipes and disassemble the instrument. The performer is able to play the tuned pitch by placing the tip of pipe, the side where the reed is, in their mouths and exhaling into the pipe. The reed can either face up or down, and this will depend on the performer. Grated malachite, which is poisonous, is painted on the reeds, so the performers must be extremely careful not to touch the reeds with their tongue, or with other parts of their mouths.
On each pipe, we have three openings – the finger hole, the byōjō, and the end-hole. We are able to modify the sound by closing the byōjō or end-hole. Note that there is no byōjō on Ichi. To notate this, In Crazy Embai (2021), three horizontal lines are written above the five-line score for instructions to play individual pipes. Of the three horizontal lines, the top line is for the end-hole, the second line is for the byōjō, and the third line for the finger hole. As Figure 34 shows, the dot on the top line represents a tap on the end-hole. The vertical lines in a rectangle on the second line represents the relative speed of the tapping on the byōjō. On the bottom horizontal line, the filled shape represents the act of closing the finger hole, and the unfilled parts indicate a slight opening of the finger hole by sliding the finger down, which will result in a slight upward glissando of the pitch.
Figure 34. Score excerpt of Crazy Embai (2021) by Chatori Shimizu
Disassembling the instrument without proper knowledge of the instrument will result in a damaged shō. Composers must ask the performer prior to composing, whether disassembling the instrument is an option in a performance. The disassembling process for all pipes takes about two to four minutes, and it will at least take five minutes to assemble it back again. Once disassembled, tuning problems may occur. This technique must be used with utmost care of the instrument with the assistance of a shō performer, and composers must be ready to compensate for any damage or fees incurred for a re-tuning of the instrument.
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11. Author Publications on Shō (English Translations)
2023 Critiquing the Unfamiliar: Cultural Sensitivity and Music Appreciation, Internationales Musikinstitut Darmstadt
2022 SEED 2021: Virtual Composition Academy, Gagaku Dayori Vol. 68
2022 On Culture and Music - A Discourse with Helmut Lachenmann, Con-Cul Journal
2021 Shō in New Music: Thoughts on Cultural Labels on Compositions. Gagaku Dayori Vol. 65
2021 Shō in New Music: Perspectives on Japanese Instruments from Academia. Gagaku Dayori Vol. 64
2020 Shō in New Music: "Exotic Expressions" in Free Improvisations. Gagaku Dayori Vol. 63
2020 Shō in New Music: Study on Cultural Appropriation. Gagaku Dayori Vol. 62
2020 Shō in New Music: Acoustic Analysis and Composition. Gagaku Dayori Vol. 61
2020 Shō in New Music: Time Identity and Notation. Gagaku Dayori Vol. 60
2019 A Study on Japanese Instrumental Training Methods for Non-Japanese Students. Senzoku Ronsou Vol. 47 (Co-Authored)
2017 Shō in New Music: Perspectives from New York. Gagaku Dayori Vol. 49